The Controversy and Summary
Entrepreneurs, do not put the words “face” or “book” in your company’s name or you’ll be hauled to court. The United States Patent and Trademark Office have granted Facebook Inc., a popular social-networking site, to trademark both these words (Camp, 2010). Should a company be able to trademark such generic words? Facebook Inc. seems to think so, and they’re taking that to the bank. Camp (2010) states “Face(TM) book(TM) will now have stronger grounds to try and shut down websites that have similar names.” On November 15, 2010 Facebook Inc. filed a lawsuit against Lamebook.com, a satirical site, arguing the company’s name is too similar to their own (McHugh, 2010).
Not surprisingly, Lamebook is protesting. They claim the name is protected under the First Amendment, not to mention the Fair-Use Defense Doctrine. Facebook retorts that the site does not meet the standard for a parody site and therefore should not be protected as one.
Facebook Inc. v. Teachbook (2010)
In August 2010, Facebook took action in federal court against a site called Teachbook.com, alleging the site “was ‘misappropriating’ the ‘book’ portion of Facebook's trademark” and claimed “Teachbook.com is a ‘blatant’ attempt to become ‘Facebook for Teachers,’ thus riding the ‘coattails’ of the networking community's fame” (Casale et. al, 2010). Teachbook offers “several of the same services as Facebook and, according to the lawsuit,” Casale says, “actually is designed to be a teacher's substitute for Facebook, as some schools do not allow teachers to maintain a Facebook or MySpace account to protect personal information from students.”
It seems this is also pertinent to the case of Lamebook in regards to their “misappropriating” of the word “book.” However, the site does not offer the same features, indeed they offer very little at all.
Facebook Inc. v. Placebook (2010)
Other companies have been flattened under the Facebook steamroller besides Teachbook, including Placebook (now called TripTrace). Placebook decided not to put up a fight and changed their name after Facebook “dangled the threat of legal action over the founders’ head.” Placebook, according to their new site TripTrace.com, offers features that “sync[s] your check-in service of choice” and maintaining a provided personal atlas of the places the individual has been. The site also enables the user to “grab bookmarks from across the web and pin them to your private maps, alongside news, events, photos and, well, anything else you want” and be able to “budget every part of your trip - from flights and hotels to activities and pocket money” by utilizing their device called “Costimator” which “compare[s] trips quickly…” (triptrace.com).
Facebook Inc. v. Faceporn (2010)
Facebook has a lot on its legal plate. Facebook is asserting that Faceporn is engaging in dilution or diminution, in drawing negative association to Facebook’s trademark. This past October, Facebook spokesman Simon Axten said, "Where there is brand tarnishment, dilution, or confusion…we must enforce our rights to protect the integrity of our trademark" (McMillan, 2010). Faceporn is currently down “due to unforeseen circumstances,” and claim that they are “working to launch a completely new version of the site” (faceporn.com). Could this be because of the threats from Facebook? Latoicha Givens, founder and member of Phillips Givens, LLC., discusses in her blog that the original appearance of Faceporn’s site was indeed identical to Facebook’s, “The logo was in the same type and font, the color scheme was the same and the layout was identical to Facebook's…Clearly, Faceporn copied the layout and style of Facebook's site” (Givens, 2010).
Application of Text
A trademark can be any “word, logo/emblem, slogan, or similar device uses to call to mind a specific supplier/manufacturer’s services or goods” (Siegel, 2002, p. 230). The federal Lanham Act protects these trademarks.
Siegel (2002) states that infringement can occur when likely confusion is introduced into the consumer-buying process (p. 233). Likelihood of confusion occurs when it can be shown that “the general public is likely to be confused by the defendant’s use of a highly similar mark” and possibly assume, incorrectly, that the marks are related to each other (p. 233). However, when it comes to parodies, the 1st Amendment generally protects them.
The Fair Use doctrine, as stated in section 107 of the Copyright Act and cited in our text, suggests that “there are some instances of copying that must be protected, either because they provide some societal good or at least because they do not do a great deal of harm to the copyright holders” (Siegel, p. 213). This could be applied to any of Facebook Inc.’s law suits mentioned and support the argument of the defendants. However, Lamebook, the key case of note here, is unique from the other cases because of its content. The other companies engaged in a play of Facebook’s name and possibly some of its features, but Lamebook is strictly a parody of the Facebook site. Lamebook.com states they are, “a fun humor blog that allows us to all share and marvel at the funny, ridiculous, and outright crazy posts that can be found on your favorite social networking site” (lamebook.com, About). Parodying of earlier, copyrighted works is protected under the Fair Use doctrine.
Our text references several cases in which parodying has been protected. This includes song melodies, dramatic skits (e.g. Saturday Night Live), and photographs. The precedent case, Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music discusses this delicate relationship and the Supreme Court has since “embraced the narrower definition of parody and made clear that defenses based on comedic intent will be handled as part of the traditional Fair Use defense” (Siegel, p. 216). The Fair Use doctrine, as cited in our text, provides four inquiries about satirical or parodying works. First, the purpose and character of the use, asserts that “those comedic works most likely to be protected by the Fair Use analysis are the ones that comment on the original work” and may benefit if “pure parody” is achieved (p.217). Lamebook certainly comments on the original work in the depiction of Facebook’s design of “wall comments” and “status updates.” And all comments and updates portrayed are user-submitted and intended to be hilarious or outrageous in nature, thus attempting to obtain pure parody.
Under this inquiry, the text states that “defendants who can demonstrate that their use of another’s copyrighted materials was for a nonprofit, educational purpose are given much deference in Fair Use analysis” (p. 219). As lamebook maintains a “store” upon which to purchase lamebook merchandise, in addition to a donation link to their legal fund, their use appears to be for profit which may slightly hinder their case. However, it can be argued that by posting the messages and other various media they seek to educate the general social-networking public about internet etiquette.
The second inquiry ascertains the nature of the work. One particular aspect of this inquiry suggests that artistic work may be more protected than heavily factual and statistical work (p. 224). This could be applied to Lamebook’s defense as the site encourages its “posters” or “authors” to express themselves and post the things that the individual deems “lame.” In regards to this inquiry, I would not consider Lamebook to be heavily factual, if factual at all. All the messages and mixed media are unique to the site’s authors and as individual as they are.
The third inquiry details the amount taken. Siegel explains that “how much defendants are allowed to ‘take’ is often a function both of the nature of their use and the original work” and “parodists are permitted to take, minimally, whatever is necessary to ‘conjure up the original’ in the minds of the readers” or in this case, “viewers” (p. 227). Lamebook takes very little from the original Facebook. Lamebook uses the same font for their logo, an imitation of the wall (message board) feature, pictures (not a feature exclusive to Facebook), an imitation of the status update feature, and the “like” function. The way in which Lamebook borrows these features is unique, however. Lamebook doesn’t actually offer these features to its consumers as Facebook does but merely “reposts” the features and messages are not able to be commented on once the post is set, only “liked” or “disliked.” Lamebook’s “Like” and unique “Dislike” function is provided in a different position than Facebook’s; placed after or separate to the post, not inside or next to it. Therefore it can be argued that Lamebook takes very little of the many features Facebook offers and borrows to the extent of bringing the original website to mind while not actually being a reproduction of the website itself.
The fourth inquiry discusses the fair use’s effect on market value. This inquiry concerns the value of the current work and any possible future work that may be marketed (p. 228). Siegel suggests that “parody’s potential for dampening the market for the original might be a function of the satire’s bite” (p. 228). Any diminution or reduction of the original work’s value is actionable if it can be proved that the taking of the work caused the decrease in value. Conversely, criticism or ridicule of the original work may be protected (p. 229). Then there’s the instance of dilution. Dilution is “any unauthorized use of another’s trademarks can diminish the value of those trademarks…via a process sometimes called blurring…or tarnishment claims…” (p. 234). Blurring, or innocent confusion, is unlikely to occur in this case. Tarnishment claims, in which the plaintiff argues that their distinguished mark has been tainted, usually don’t succeed if the defendant’s purpose is for parody or some kind of political commentary (p. 234).
According to Facebook’s website, Facebook boasts more than 500 million active users, and asserts that people spend over 700 billion minutes a month on Facebook. On a personal note, my small circle of friends had never heard of Lamebook until it went up against the Goliath: Facebook. Indeed, it seems Facebook may not be cognizant of the free marketing it provides to the small websites they engage in litigation with. Facebook isn’t going anywhere and Lamebook will not catch up to the giant utilizing a mere rock and a sling.
Prediction
From what I can deduce through my research, and being among the generation of pro social-networking websites, Lamebook appears to be justified in regards to the selection of their name and the content on their website.
The cases prior to Lamebook, with at least one other currently in court (Teachbook.com), the outcomes have not been in favor of the little guy. August 2010 was a busy month for Facebook Inc., after sending notices to both Placebook.com and Teachbook.com for trademark infringement. “Sometimes you just can’t fight the 800lb gorilla,” said the official Placebook blog. While Placebook bowed to the king in submission, Teachbook stood in rebellion and is now being tried for treason. Off with their…face?
Despite the trail of carnage Facebook leaves in its path, I predict Lamebook will be triumphant. It is a true parody site and is protected by the Fair Use doctrine and the 1st Amendment.
Prediction Rationale
Although much was digressed in Application of Text, briefly reviewing the four questions posited via the Fair Use Doctrine will provide an outline the rationale for the prediction. First, the purpose and character of the use appears to be in good faith and achieving pure parody thus fulfilling this inquiry, albeit the commercial use within the parody site. Second, the nature of the work is more artistic than statistical but in reference to Lamebook’s parody, not necessarily the original work borrowed from Facebook though that is more artistic than statistical too. Basically, true parody is artistic and should be protected. Third, the amount taken is minimal and only enough to bring to mind the original website in the mind of its audience. Fourth, the effect on market value is minimal as well. Even if there is an increasing share of popularity, the site cannot compete with Facebook as it cannot stand alone. Lamebook is akin to a benign parasite, feeding on a host to survive while causing no real harm.
Another point for the rationale involves dilution. As aforementioned, Siegel (2002) described it as “any unauthorized use of another’s trademarks…” (p. 234). Due to the immense popularity of Facebook, blurring, in which the public might mistakenly believe Lamebook is Facebook, the case would have to be made that their product lines or services are similar, which they are not. Then the second aspect of dilution, being tarnishment, will not benefit Facebook’s case as parody is generally exempt from these claims.
In short, we find throughout the text that true parody is protected. It is an artistic interpretation of another artistic expression, so to speak. All great artists – musicians, painters, and comedians – draw their inspiration from somewhere and their unique outlook is and should be protected. Lamebook does not offer the same services as Facebook therefore cannot become the “new Facebook,” nor does it seem their intention. The creators of Lamebook merely poke fun (oops, can’t use the word “poke” much longer) at the lack of etiquette some of the site’s users exhibit and the funny comments and pictures that arise.
Lastly, a point of rationale is a brief look at the other cases dragged to court by their collars. In the case of Teachbook, Facebook was in the right. Teachbook was blatantly a “Facebook for teachers,” utilizing many of the same services Facebook offered, thus committing “product proximity” (Siegel, p. 233). In the case of Faceporn, Facebook too could have a strong case as Facebook Inc. argues it is essentially an “X-rated social network.” To add fuel to their fire, Faceporn also claimed them to be “the number one socializing porn and sex network,” thus also committing product proximity and potential tarnishment (McMillian). Finally, in the case of Placebook, it would seem the creators of the site had something to hide as they changed their name the first time drill sergeant Facebook said “drop and gimme twenty.”
Perception of Fairness & Benefits
If the outcome of the case is as I predict, I feel it would be a most fair ruling. Parodies have a unique license in our laws because our forefathers knew even back then that we need humor in our lives. Some people have a tendency to take life so seriously and the stress of it all takes its toll on our minds and bodies.
On the one hand where Facebook Inc. decries foul play by Lamebook’s intent and need to survive solely due to Facebook’s existence, Facebook must also concede that Lamebook has and will bring new visitors, if not members, to its ranks, thus causing a positive impact on Facebook’s existence and popularity. The determining factor of the health and prosperity of a web-based social networking business is indeed measured by numbers of viewers and numbers of times those viewers seek out the site. If another venue brings more viewers to their site, even if just to witness the basis for the parody and to ascertain what makes the Facebook site worth turning into a humorous counterpart, then Facebook is impacted more positively than negatively as every visit to their site is a potential gain for their intended purpose of existence. Moreover, imagine the impact of interest Lamebook could create not only in the virtual cyber world, but in the real word.
Word of mouth advertising is the best advertising there is, some say. Imagine friends talking in a college dormitory’s lobby and another student overhears this name “Lamebook,” investigates the location of the site, undoubtedly finds humor, and then scans the original Facebook for ways to contribute to the humor. This scenario is not at all far-fetched as this is how I heard of it. Of course, I was already acquainted with and a member of Facebook, but nonetheless, I searched through Facebook’s profiles and “walls” to discover anything clever enough to submit to Lamebook.
Heeding the old adage that imitation is the highest form of flattery, Facebook may be putting itself in a position of losing new attendees to its site by seeking to suppress the Lamebook venture. In weighing the advantages and disadvantages of a purported “copycat” site, Facebook may lose more than it would gain by spending the time, effort, and financial costs to pursue the demise of Lamebook. By creating their site to have its basic building blocks solely as parody, Lamebook is not putting itself up against Facebook as a competitor seeking to garner an ever growing market share of what Facebook has to offer to the online community.
Lamebook, by contrast, is more likely a virtual advertising agent for Facebook and Facebook can freely enjoy and reap the benefits of this free publicity that will most certainly outweigh any negative impact a site like Lamebook could have on a comparatively gigantic counterpart. Facebook also may in the long run improve its image by not running headlong into fighting every perceived infringement of their online presence and structure that may ultimately create some degree of negative impact on members and potential members who do not have a problem with parodies, and others who do have a problem with corporate giants throwing their weight around and attempting to seek out and destroy smaller sites that are benign in nature and only trying to give participants a laugh and a venue to express their own humor. It is in the nature of many people to be repelled by the bully yet feel a receptiveness towards others that can laugh at themselves. This can cross over to businesses, politics, and entertainment – virtually anything that is in the sight of the public eye. It almost seems that Facebook employs a zero tolerance policy on any aspect of what they believe is infringement due to the amount of litigation it initiates. If they looked at it on a case by case basis and analyzed the obvious potentials of advantages and disadvantages, it would not only save them litigation funds but also not tie up court time in the legal system which ultimately has a negative impact on the population at large.
The intent of our legal system has never been to invite the business community to throw everything they can against a courtroom wall just to see what will stick. I think that a decision in favor of Lamebook will have a positive impact by defining publicly what is allowable under the First Amendment and the Fair Use Doctrine.
Conclusion
Facebook Inc. is a great social networking tool and one of their many contributions is helping long-distant friends stay in touch. It’s a fun site to utilize and a great time killer on a lazy Sunday afternoon. But when will enough be enough? How many mice will this cat chase before it’s completely satisfied? When will the night watchman rest and let the innocent passersby stroll through the fiber optic channels of cyberspace in peace?
Camp (2010) identifies that “possible future targets could include Apple’s FaceTime and Failbook.com.” Camp also claims that “Facebook has also applied to trademark the words ‘like,’ ‘poke,’ and ‘wall.’” It seems soon Facebook Inc. will be able to distribute a dictionary of all the words they own and their secondary meanings.
Robin Wauters, a writer and “blogger” for the website Tech Crunch, wrote a commentary in August about all the latest Facebook happenings with litigation. He wrote:
“All those insolent travel website owners think they can get away with using the word ‘book’ in their names because people can ‘book’ holidays, hotels and whatnot on their websites. Shouldn’t be allowed, ‘making a reservation’ is just as effective a term. Hotelbook, Travelbook, Cruisebook and others – consider yourself warned. Scrapbook? No-brainer. The social aspect of your site is dubbed My Place, which sorta sounds like MySpace, so consider yourself warned twice. TasteBook? One can sign up to your website for free, which is exactly what Facebook does. You’re on the list. RaceBook? Care to make things a little more interesting? Bet you’ll meet each other in court. DoctorsBook? A social network for doctors, like you really came up with that on your own. Facebook has an effective remedy for your company name, no prescription required. Casebook? Better yet, a social network for lawyers. Sure hope your users are among the cream of the crop in their profession. Cookbook(s)? You look like a tasty target. eBook? Taking 3 letters off of Facebook’s name is kinda obvious, you dirty parasites. Runbook? That trademark icon behind your company name ain’t gonna help you, buddies. BlackBook? Your About Us page says ‘community’ somewhere. On the list you go. FacesBook? Actually, you might really be next.”
So who will be next? How many more generic, everyday words will Facebook accumulate? Will Lamebook survive the storm and find shelter in the law? These answers have yet to be revealed. But stay tuned, folks, as the next episode unfolds in days of our lives.
References
Angliss, B. (2010, August 26). Facebook sues Teachbook for trademark infringement. Scholars & Rogues. Retrieved from http://www.scholarsandrogues.com/2010/08/26/facebook-sues-teachbook-for-trademark-infringement.
Bell, M. (2010, November 10). Lamebook and Facebook battle over name rights. The Washington Post . Retrieved from http://voices.washingtonpost.com/blog-post/2010/11/lamebook_and_facebook_battle_o.html
Bergin, K. (2010, November 23). Looking for Lamebook? First Amendment Law Prof Blog, . Retrieved from http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/firstamendment/2010/11/looking-for-lamebook.html#tp.
Facebook Press Room: Statistics, http://www.facebook.com/press/info.php?statistics (last visited Dec. 1, 2010).
Givens, L. (2010). Facebook vs. faceporn: Trademark infringement or copyright infringement. IP LAW 101. Phillips Givens, LLC.
Lamebook Official Website: About. http://www.lamebook.com/about (last visited Dec. 3, 2010).
McHugh, M. (2010, November 15). Facebook suing Lamebook for trademark infringement. Digital Trends. Retrieved from http://www.digitaltrends.com/social-media/facebook-suing-lamebook-for-trademark-infringement/trackback.
McMillan, R. (2010, October 22). Facebook sues Faceporn, claiming trademark infringement. The IDG News Service. Retrieved from
http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9192700/Facebook_sues_Faceporn_claiming_trademark_infringement.
Patel, M., & Saha, S. (2008). Trademark issues in digital era. Journal of Intellectual Property Rights, 13, 118-128. Retrieved from http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/425/1/JIPR%2013(2)%20(2008)%20118-128.pdf
Prognano, S. M., & Fishkin, A. P. (2010). Social networking: So much data, so little guidance, so much potential exposure. New York Law Journal. Retrieved from http://www.law.com/jsp/nylj/PubArticleNY.jsp?id=1202474706944&slreturn=1&hbxlogin=1.
Rubin (2010, August 18). Placebook is now TripTrace. TripTrace Official Blog. Retrieved from http://triptrace.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/byebye.jpg.
Van Camp, J. (2010, November 24). Facebook trademarks the word "face" (TM). Digital Trends. Retrieved from http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/facebook-trademarks-the-word-face-tm/trackback.
Wauters, R. (2010). Hey Facebook, here are some other companies you can bully or sue. Tech Crunch. Retrieved from http://techcrunch.com/2010/08/26/facebook-placebook-teachbook.
Welcome!
Thursday, December 9, 2010
Wednesday, August 18, 2010
Berry Good For You
The summer is winding down. Fall is nearly here and before you know it, it'll be Thanksgiving. But why wait till then to pass the cranberries? Some of you may have heard that cranberries are good for you. As an avid cranberry products conesuir, I've decided to delve into some scholarly journals and see what the deal is with this tart little berry.
The history of cranberries in our country goes back to the early settlement days when the Native Americans introduced the colonists/pilgrams to this magical fruit that was revered for its healing powers in an array of ailments from arrow wounds, blood and intestinal complaints, to preventing scurvy. Not to mention it's wide use for dying purposes.
Within one of the Health Source Databases provided through my university library online, I found an article referencing the 105th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology in Atlanta, stating that "cranberry juice reduces the infectivity of intestinal viruses." Otherwise known as urinary tract infections, or UTIs. So what does this mean? Well, according to an article by Susan Freinkel (2000), "cranberries contain a number of antioxidents...including a class of antioxidants called proanthocyanidins, or condensed tannins, which are concentrated in the seeds and deep crimson skin of the fruit." These antioxidants "block the culprit bacteria (like E. coli) from setting up shop." They mimic cells that are already lining the urinary tract therefore instead of "binding to the cells where they will multiply," the bad guys cling to the cell-posers and get flushed out with the urine. So basically the "condensed tannins keep the [bad guys] from sticking." However, researcher Amy B. Howell (1998) - whose research was largely sponsered by OceanSpray - suggests it is important to note that cranberry juice won't help for an infection that's already moved in; at this point, antibiotics may be necessary. Still, that's a pretty amazing ability from a little berry.
But wait, there's more!
Cranberries do more for you than prevent infection-causing bacteria from adhering to the bladder walls. According to "Cranberries: Antioxidant Benefits Behind the Tartness," one cup of whole cranberries "provides 13 milligrams of vitamin C and four grams for fiber." Additionally, antioxidants called anthocyanins, which give these berries their scarlet hue, may help fight against certain cancers and cardiovascular diseases. This article references an animal study conducted at the University of Wisconsin at LaCrosse which proffers that "cranberry juice may improve blood flow by inhibiting blood clotting and increasing blood vessel diameter...compared the antioxidant levels in 21 [different] fruits [and] ranked cranberried number one in polyphenols, the phytonutrients credited with the hearthealth benefits of grapes." Ted Wilson, a nutritional physiologist at LaCrosse, says "in terms of antioxidant activity, cranberry juice is comparable to, if not better than, red wine."
So not only is cranberry an everyday criminal bacteria fighter, but they come from a family with good connections. "Cranberries are close kin to blueberries and their European cousins, bilberries and lingonberries," says Freinkel (2000). This clan aquired high critical acclaim for their "wealth of antioxidants" and their superhero abilities in warding off "cancers, heart disease, and other ailments."
The Consumer Reports on Health from this August (2010) says berries help support memory. "Blueberries and strawberries contain polyphenols, substances that might reduce inflammation in blood vessels in the brain." Indeed, the report identifies an unpublished study of "3,774 people in Chicago that linked the regular consumption of strawberries to a slightly slower rate of cognitive decline in women as they got older." Berries aren't just beneficial to women. The article, "Drink to a Healthy Heart" from Men's Health (2007) says that "cranberry juice cocktail helps save your arteries." The article draws on a Canadian study in which 30 men drank two 8-ounce glasses of cranberry juice everyday for three months and discovered their levels of oxidized LDL cholesterol was decreased by 21%.
Antioxidants also work wonders for the skin. Carmindy, a make-up artist on TLC's "What Not To Wear," and author of several books says "for radiantly beautiful skin, eat foods rich in antioxidants, like blueberries, acacia, and green tea" (p. 20).
On the flip side, not everyone is camping out by cranberry bogs. Freinkel (2000) quotes Jerry G. Blaivas, a urologist at Weil Cornell Medical School in New York City who said there have not been enough credible studies to persuade him to endorse cranberry juice. In my own research I have found scholarly articles that present what has been discovered about cranberries and indeed there is strong evidence to attest to the characteristics of these berries, but some of the linkage to human health is weak. Moreover, Dr. Ruth Jepson of the University of Stirling in Scotland as quoted in the article "Cranberry-Juice Home Remedy May Really Help," says that cranberry juice "can be costly and add calories" and that cranberry supplements are also problematic because they "come in different strengths and that optimal dose and duration of use are unclear...tablets may also not have same biological effect as cranberry juice because of ingredients potentially diminished or destroyed in manufacturing."
The constant debate over whether the consumption of cranberries really helps to ward of disease seems yet to be determined. Within my research only animal studies attest to the immense benefits. Therefore it may be some time yet before we obtain stronger evidence. Regardless, I feel it can't hurt to invest in this berry since there is no debate that fruit is good for the body.
"Cranberries are only available fresh from September to December," says the article "Cranberries: Antioxidant Benefits Behind the Tartness." They'll stay fresh for up to two weeks when stored in the refrigerator or a year if stored in the freezer (best in their original bag). Cranberries will retain their nutrients for up to nine months and can be used in recipes while in there frozen state, no need to thaw, just rinse and use. For an alternatve the article suggests dried cranberries, though some of the vitamin C is lost during the processing most of their antioxidants remain intact. Also, there is white cranberries. They are the same berries, merely harvested early. These beries are milder and a spokesperson for Ocean Spray says they "contain comparable amounts of proanthocyanids as red cranberries but not as much anthocyanins (which gives cranberries the dark red color and other health benefits)." So ya win some, ya lose some.
So lets not wait till the end of November to put the spotlight on this fruit. Ocean Spray's website offers many cranberry-infused recipes to enjoy them all year round. I'll be seeing you down the juice isle!
References
(2001). Cranberries: Antioxidant benefits behind the tartness. Environmental Nutrition, 24(11). Retrieved from Health Source database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
(2005). Research briefs: Cranberry juice benefits the gut. GP:General Practitioner. Retrieved from Health Source database: Nursing/Academic Edition. www.asm.org.
(2008). Cranberry-juice home remedy may really help. Tufts University Health & Nutrition Letter, 26(2). Retrieved from Health Souce database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
(2010). Consumer reports on health. FoodSense, 6.
Acosta, C. (2010). Crazy busy beautiful: Beauty secrets for getting ready fast (1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
Duthie, S. J., Jenkinson, A, Mullen, W., Pirie, L., Kyle, J., Yap, L. S., Christen, P., & Duthie, G. G. (2006). The effects of cranbery juice consumption on antioxidant status and biomarkers relating to heart disease and cancer in healthy human volunteers. 45, DOI:10.1007/s00394-005-0572-9.
Freinkel, S. (2000). Give thanks for cranberries. Health (Time Inc. Health), 14(9). Retrieved from Health Source database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
Goulding, M. (2007). Drink to a healthy heart. Men's Health, 22(10). Retrieved from Health Souce database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
The history of cranberries in our country goes back to the early settlement days when the Native Americans introduced the colonists/pilgrams to this magical fruit that was revered for its healing powers in an array of ailments from arrow wounds, blood and intestinal complaints, to preventing scurvy. Not to mention it's wide use for dying purposes.
Within one of the Health Source Databases provided through my university library online, I found an article referencing the 105th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology in Atlanta, stating that "cranberry juice reduces the infectivity of intestinal viruses." Otherwise known as urinary tract infections, or UTIs. So what does this mean? Well, according to an article by Susan Freinkel (2000), "cranberries contain a number of antioxidents...including a class of antioxidants called proanthocyanidins, or condensed tannins, which are concentrated in the seeds and deep crimson skin of the fruit." These antioxidants "block the culprit bacteria (like E. coli) from setting up shop." They mimic cells that are already lining the urinary tract therefore instead of "binding to the cells where they will multiply," the bad guys cling to the cell-posers and get flushed out with the urine. So basically the "condensed tannins keep the [bad guys] from sticking." However, researcher Amy B. Howell (1998) - whose research was largely sponsered by OceanSpray - suggests it is important to note that cranberry juice won't help for an infection that's already moved in; at this point, antibiotics may be necessary. Still, that's a pretty amazing ability from a little berry.
But wait, there's more!
Cranberries do more for you than prevent infection-causing bacteria from adhering to the bladder walls. According to "Cranberries: Antioxidant Benefits Behind the Tartness," one cup of whole cranberries "provides 13 milligrams of vitamin C and four grams for fiber." Additionally, antioxidants called anthocyanins, which give these berries their scarlet hue, may help fight against certain cancers and cardiovascular diseases. This article references an animal study conducted at the University of Wisconsin at LaCrosse which proffers that "cranberry juice may improve blood flow by inhibiting blood clotting and increasing blood vessel diameter...compared the antioxidant levels in 21 [different] fruits [and] ranked cranberried number one in polyphenols, the phytonutrients credited with the hearthealth benefits of grapes." Ted Wilson, a nutritional physiologist at LaCrosse, says "in terms of antioxidant activity, cranberry juice is comparable to, if not better than, red wine."
So not only is cranberry an everyday criminal bacteria fighter, but they come from a family with good connections. "Cranberries are close kin to blueberries and their European cousins, bilberries and lingonberries," says Freinkel (2000). This clan aquired high critical acclaim for their "wealth of antioxidants" and their superhero abilities in warding off "cancers, heart disease, and other ailments."
The Consumer Reports on Health from this August (2010) says berries help support memory. "Blueberries and strawberries contain polyphenols, substances that might reduce inflammation in blood vessels in the brain." Indeed, the report identifies an unpublished study of "3,774 people in Chicago that linked the regular consumption of strawberries to a slightly slower rate of cognitive decline in women as they got older." Berries aren't just beneficial to women. The article, "Drink to a Healthy Heart" from Men's Health (2007) says that "cranberry juice cocktail helps save your arteries." The article draws on a Canadian study in which 30 men drank two 8-ounce glasses of cranberry juice everyday for three months and discovered their levels of oxidized LDL cholesterol was decreased by 21%.
Antioxidants also work wonders for the skin. Carmindy, a make-up artist on TLC's "What Not To Wear," and author of several books says "for radiantly beautiful skin, eat foods rich in antioxidants, like blueberries, acacia, and green tea" (p. 20).
On the flip side, not everyone is camping out by cranberry bogs. Freinkel (2000) quotes Jerry G. Blaivas, a urologist at Weil Cornell Medical School in New York City who said there have not been enough credible studies to persuade him to endorse cranberry juice. In my own research I have found scholarly articles that present what has been discovered about cranberries and indeed there is strong evidence to attest to the characteristics of these berries, but some of the linkage to human health is weak. Moreover, Dr. Ruth Jepson of the University of Stirling in Scotland as quoted in the article "Cranberry-Juice Home Remedy May Really Help," says that cranberry juice "can be costly and add calories" and that cranberry supplements are also problematic because they "come in different strengths and that optimal dose and duration of use are unclear...tablets may also not have same biological effect as cranberry juice because of ingredients potentially diminished or destroyed in manufacturing."
The constant debate over whether the consumption of cranberries really helps to ward of disease seems yet to be determined. Within my research only animal studies attest to the immense benefits. Therefore it may be some time yet before we obtain stronger evidence. Regardless, I feel it can't hurt to invest in this berry since there is no debate that fruit is good for the body.
"Cranberries are only available fresh from September to December," says the article "Cranberries: Antioxidant Benefits Behind the Tartness." They'll stay fresh for up to two weeks when stored in the refrigerator or a year if stored in the freezer (best in their original bag). Cranberries will retain their nutrients for up to nine months and can be used in recipes while in there frozen state, no need to thaw, just rinse and use. For an alternatve the article suggests dried cranberries, though some of the vitamin C is lost during the processing most of their antioxidants remain intact. Also, there is white cranberries. They are the same berries, merely harvested early. These beries are milder and a spokesperson for Ocean Spray says they "contain comparable amounts of proanthocyanids as red cranberries but not as much anthocyanins (which gives cranberries the dark red color and other health benefits)." So ya win some, ya lose some.
So lets not wait till the end of November to put the spotlight on this fruit. Ocean Spray's website offers many cranberry-infused recipes to enjoy them all year round. I'll be seeing you down the juice isle!
References
(2001). Cranberries: Antioxidant benefits behind the tartness. Environmental Nutrition, 24(11). Retrieved from Health Source database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
(2005). Research briefs: Cranberry juice benefits the gut. GP:General Practitioner. Retrieved from Health Source database: Nursing/Academic Edition. www.asm.org.
(2008). Cranberry-juice home remedy may really help. Tufts University Health & Nutrition Letter, 26(2). Retrieved from Health Souce database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
(2010). Consumer reports on health. FoodSense, 6.
Acosta, C. (2010). Crazy busy beautiful: Beauty secrets for getting ready fast (1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
Duthie, S. J., Jenkinson, A, Mullen, W., Pirie, L., Kyle, J., Yap, L. S., Christen, P., & Duthie, G. G. (2006). The effects of cranbery juice consumption on antioxidant status and biomarkers relating to heart disease and cancer in healthy human volunteers. 45, DOI:10.1007/s00394-005-0572-9.
Freinkel, S. (2000). Give thanks for cranberries. Health (Time Inc. Health), 14(9). Retrieved from Health Source database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
Goulding, M. (2007). Drink to a healthy heart. Men's Health, 22(10). Retrieved from Health Souce database: Nursing/Academic Edition.
Friday, May 14, 2010
Looks Can Be Deceiving: A Review Essay of the Third-Person Effect and Body Image
“Looks Can Be Deceiving”:
Review Essay of the Third-Person Effect and Body Image
Elle Morgen
COMS 640
Dr. C.
Northern Illinois University
Introduction
Mediated messages are pervasive. Mediated messages depicting patriarchal representations of women are even worse. If you did not own a television, merely driving to the nearest mall you’re sure to encounter a billboard on the side of the road, even if it’s on a bench. Suppose that you do go to the mall, and approaching the mall directory there is a banner advertising one of the specialty stores. In this advertisement there is a group of attractive, fit, 20-somethings reclining against a Jeep parked on a beach. One couple is sitting on the hood kissing, a few are sitting in the car listening to music and laughing, while two others are running along the shoreline in the distance. Naturally, you are aware that advertisers try to promote the idea that if you buy their product it could be you out there, being active and having fun. But you know better.
According to Davison’s (1983) third-person effect theory, he argues that people tend to believe that mass mediated messages (persuasive or non-persuasive) have a greater effect or influence on others than on themselves. Davidson suggests there are two elements that comprise this effect: the perceptual and the behavioral (Davison, 1983, p. 9; Huh, Delorme, & Reid, 2004, cited in Leone & Bissell, p. 9). The perceptual implies that a mediated message has greater effect on others – the third person – than on the self or “you.” The behavioral implies that others could be persuaded to act a certain way “based on perceived effects” (Huh et al, 2004, p. 569; Leone & Bissell, p. 9).
In third-person effect studies, previous research has focused on negative messages like violence and the presence of pornography on the internet, to censorship of mass media (Davidson, 1983; Perloff, 1993; Conners, 2005). Not much attention has been directed towards positive messages. This is because an underlying assumption of the third-person effect is that the message presented by the media is negative in nature, thus, naturally, an individual would not desire to “own up to it,” in a sense (Perloff, 1993). If the message were positive, in which the individual could respond saying something akin to, “oh yes, that’s definitely me,” this would be an account of the first-person, just as in narratives the first-person perspective uses the voice of “I” and “me.” So while there cannot be empirical research of positive messages in regards to the third-person effect, or third-person perception, there is however, some research that looks at neutral topics, like body image. That is, neutral in the sense that it is not violent in nature nor is it exactly “positive” (e.g. “our bodies are great!”). But body image is, however, a very impassioned subject.
The five articles I examine focus on the connection between the third-person effect and body image as presented by the media. The tone of the relationship between the third-person effect and perceived body image is negative in nature considering that the third-person is present in these studies, conversely if it were positive in tone, presence of the first-person would be recorded. Yet these seemingly unattainable “ideal body” representations are continually occurring. It is important to note that all articles deal with a female audience, as females are generally more affected than males (David & Johnson, 1998, p. 39). Some of the literature does, however, relate what the women believe men perceive about the mediated messages.
Overall, I identified emergent themes in the literature that indicated the problem is two-pronged. On one tine there is the perceptual, where body image is constructed by these mass-mediated images. On the second tine exists the actual, in which the real body image attempts to parallel itself with the perceptual. It’s almost like a vicious circle of cause and effect. An individual consumes these ideal body images and attempts to conform (via fad diets, gym memberships, etc.) but ultimately fails. Reality retains all the water against the airbrushed dream. This essay reviews previous literature about the third-person effect in regards to body image to further identify why these “ideals” permeate our society, if they happen in other countries/cultures, and how these messages reinforce dominant patriarchal gender roles.
The Make-Over
The underlying premise of makeover shows is to take an “ugly duckling” or an “average girl” and turn her into a “swan” or “beauty queen” utilizing plastic surgery, cosmetics, and new wardrobe (Leone & Bissell, 2006, p. 24). Examples of these include: “The Swan,” “What Not to Wear,” and “Ambush Makeover.”
In, “Are You For Real?: Gender Differences in Third-Person Perceptions about Body Image and Exposure to Reality Makeover Television Shows,” ( Leone & Bissell, 2006) the authors examine third-person perception of college-aged people as it relates to body image distortion in women and men and five target “other” groups including those older and younger than the sample. Their primary goal was to examine the third-person perception and its relation to body image distortion among college students. Their second goal was to seek further into the students’ beliefs about plastic surgery and a solution for “fixing” their body image (p. 3). Participants were shown an image of a thin swimsuit model or a muscular swimsuit model depending on the participant’s sex, and were asked “to project how repeated exposure to images like the one viewed would affect themselves and others” (p. 11). They also controlled and recorded the amount of exposure to such makeover shows as “Extreme Makeover” and “The Swan.” The participants predicted that others would be more likely to be affected by exposure to this ideal body type portrayal than him or her individually (p. 16).
Leone & Bissell (2006) reported that eighty percent of women in America are dissatisfied with their appearance. Additionally, not only women are experiencing this, for it is also conveyed that nearly “three million males in the United States use anabolic steroids to increase their muscle mass” (p. 3). The authors claim that the “exposure to thinness depicting and promoting (TDP) media is related to greater body dissatisfaction, lower body self-esteem, and self objectification in school-aged males and females” (p.3). Kipnis (1999) and Butler (1990) both devote several pages in their books proffering that gender is governed by social scripts (p. 80; preface, p. xxxi). Sloop (2004) maintains that those who deviate from the scripts are punished or disciplined. It seems it holds true even here. When the individual cannot attain the ideal body type – falling away from the accepted script – the individual is punished, however it is more self-inflicted through the destructive behavior of depression and food disorders.
The authors argue that even toymakers promote these ideal bodies. Leone & Bissell (2006) quote another scholar who says, “GI Joe’s increasing muscularity over the decades is obviously intentional on the part of the manufacturer to project more masculinity and more power…boys pick up on that and make the connection: If I want to be strong and masculine, I have to be muscular” (Olivardia, 2003, cited in Leone & Bissell, 2006, p. 5). And let’s not ignore the popular girl’s toy, the Barbie Doll. Leone & Bissell (2006) describe that even from a young age people are being bombarded with this notion that only one body type is acceptable.
Throughout the study, the authors note that ideal body types represented in the media are different for men and women, but the repeated exposure or presentation of them is the same (p. 5). This is important to recognize as the amount of exposure plays a vital role in our society’s tight-grasped perception of one of the appropriate definitions of gender.
Leone & Bissell (2006) found a significant third-person effect in all target groups (p. 22). Their findings also suggest that while their participants did believe the media had an impact on others’ beliefs about ideal body images, the degree of the effect “may be predicted on age and perceived exposure to the harmful media” (p. 23). In regards to plastic surgery as a solution to “fix” their bodies, participants felt they would never invest in it, but believe that older people (women) would. Moreover, the men who were highly exposed to the mediated messages deemed it acceptable that women seek plastic surgery to make their bodies better (p. 23). Leone & Bissell state that The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reports “the number of girls 18 and younger receiving breast implants tripled from 3,872 to 11,326 between 2002 and 2003” (p7). The team divulged that their “findings suggest that respondents in our sample believe the media do in fact have an effect on all others’ beliefs about ideal body image, but the degree of effect may be predicated on age and perceived exposure to the harmful media” (p. 23).
This study is the first among the five to represent a sort of mismatch between the media’s ideal self and reality’s actual self (Leone & Bissell, 2006, p. 4). The best way to fix it – get a make-over. Right?
The Make-Up
Flawless foundation, dark voluminous lashes, age-defying serum, hair extensions, and a push-up bra from Victoria’s Secret. Purchasing these things will not only make a woman feel beautiful and sexy, but be beautiful and sexy. Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) do not directly examine the third-person effect, but their study has merit. They provide body image research within mainstream media, recency of study, and contribute insights of patriarchal and hegemonic gender roles within our popular culture. Additionally, though no third-person was examined or recorded, it could be argued that it may have been present.
Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007), grounded in cultural and feminist studies, explore make-over shows as Leone & Bissell (2006) did, but focus primarily on “A Makeover Story,” “What Not to Wear,” and “Extreme Makeover,” executing a textual analysis to determine “the ideological impact of patriarchy, particularly as it relates to female body image” (p. 57). Their starting point is based on this “ideology of beauty,” comprised of the items previously listed and how companies make women feel that they are incomplete without these beauty enhancers (Schwichtenberg, 1989, p. 293, cited on p. 57).
Butler (1990) argues “gender [is] a binary relation in which the masculine is differentiated from a feminine term, and this differentiation is accomplished through the practices of heterosexual desire” (Butler, 1990, p. 23). Thus wearing makeup can be viewed as being feminine – performing a women’s proper gender. But what consequences does this have? Sure, wearing make-up can make a women feel pretty, but for what? Generally, for the pleasure of gaining attention of men. This promotes a heteronormative ideal not to mention the patriarchal objectification of women.
Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) utilize quantitative researches methods, in difference to the other scholars mentioned who tend to engage in interviews. They undergo ten hours total of program viewing, identifying emergent themes and patterns imploring Sonja Foss’s (1996) method of analyzing “hegemonic structures in texts” for guidance (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 64).
The team acknowledges men in their study as Leone & Bissell (2006) had, but in a less severe way suggesting that men have not yet reached the same level of risk as women currently do (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 61). Even so, the authors note that there are makeover programs for men such as “Queer Eye for the Straight Guy,” in which groom heterosexual males into attractive partners for their opposite sex counterparts. A program such as this reinforces heteronormative views. Indeed, it brings to mind the idea that a “manly man” cannot look after himself – groom himself, take pride in appearance – for these are feminine characteristics that are “taboo within hegemonic masculinity” (p. 61). The increasing number of men who engage in this behavior has become so problematic that our society/media has deemed it necessary to label these men “metrosexuals” in order to distinguish them from women and homosexual men.
The researchers also take a glance at plastic surgery within their research. Where Leone & Bissell’s (2006) male participants deemed it acceptable for women to seek this solution out as a fix for physical features, it seems men do this as well comprising 15 percent of plastic surgery patients. A small number perhaps, but more significant than I imagined it would have been. Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) identified that the “typical plastic surgery patient is Caucasian (84%), is female (85%), is usually aged 30 to 50 years old (45%), and is a repeat patient, meaning they have already undergone at least one procedure prior to their next surgery (37%)” (American Association of Plastic Surgeons, 2004, cited on p. 70).
“The individual body in American society is pretty much the sole locale for scenarious of transformation: you can aerobicize it, liposuction it, contract it through diet or expand it with collagen injections” Kipnis (1999) argues (p. 103). The authors nod their heads to this as one of the emergent themes uncovered in the shows was that plastic surgery is a “pain-free cure-all” for women’s imperfections (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 69). The authors argue that this message suggests that there is something “abnormal” about the individual woman that can/needs to be changed to “normal” (p. 69). Having been a plastic surgery patient myself I can attest to the inner need of “fixing” an apparent abnormality to a more “normal” and “acceptable” physical feature. The definition of normal is defined by culture, thus media included, setting the bar which seems to be constantly rising. If it were Limbo, there would be no obstacle, but this is not a party game. This is our lives and we only live it once. If we fail, there is no make-up.
On the Make
Similar to Leone & Bissell, Brandes (2009) investigates the third-person effect and women’s attitude to these mediated images, however Brandes (2009) does so cross-culturally, observing this particular intersection of race and gender exposed to media effects. The author focused the study on Israeli women unlike Leone & Bissell’s (2006) U.S. college students and Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert’s (2007) textual analysis. Many American scholars hold a magnifying glass over issues within the United States as it is this patriarchal wall that needs to be torn down, however looking abroad can provide further support by peeking into the stronger patriarchal societies that hold strong today.
Brandes (2009) argues that overall, “the connection between female body images in the media…has been examined in the cross-cultural and ethnic context, as the model of beauty most common in the media throughout the world is white” (p. 6). However the author found evidence that suggests not all women conform to the “ideal white models” due to several factors such as women’s self esteem, being on a diet, and relatability of the model (David & Johnson, 1998; David et al., 2002; as cited in Brandes, 2009, p. 7). It appears minority women do not relate to white models, thus view themselves as unaffected by this influence. However white girls tend to believe others’ do accept these images upon which, as a result, white girls are judged (Milkie, 1999; Brandes, p. 7). Considering this, Brandes (2009) conducted in-depth interviews with 44 Israeli women from a variety of social and economic backgrounds as to provide a diverse sample and utilizes grounded theory methodology to analyze the interviews.
Akin to what Leone & Bissell (2006) found, these interviews help a reoccurring theme: the participants claimed to function under a “critical eye” that they felt “others” may not thus being more susceptible to influence of media’s images. In regards to advertising in commercials, the participants who did confess to purchasing a product in wake of the mediated message justified it by some other external means (Brandes, 2009, p. 11). A vast amount of the participant’s responses, however, were in regards to their children and others’ children being influenced. Brandes (2009) took on a difficult task focusing cross-culturally as the values and norms can vary. To combat this, Brandes (2009) describes key features within women’s life in Israel, and reports “it is hard to ignore the sense that the women’s remarks reflected their viewing of the [mediated message] through the prism of patriarchal motherhood, which would indicate the centrality of their role as mother in their gender identity” (p. 16). Last key point to observe is the participants’ belief of how men view these messages/images. The women believed that men attain a “superficial fascination with physical appearance” and that they are very much influenced by mediated messages and images: “they see something on TV and want their wives to look like that,” says one participant (p. 17). This is interesting as Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) quoted the American Association of Plastic Surgeons (2004) who disclosed that 15 percent of plastic surgery patients are men (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 61).
Kipnis’ (1999) chapter, “Life in the Fat Lane,” points out within the first paragraph that our society’s obsession for fat’s absence makes certain of its “omnipresence” (p. 93.). The participants within Brandes’ (2009) study seem to suggest that while it appears that individuals are not only being judged and critiqued by their society, but also by their loved ones.
Make it or Break it
As Brandes (2009) discovered, Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) also found that the women in their experiment believed men to be just as, and in some cases more, susceptible to media’s influence than their female peers (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 27) and “because ideal body images are usually unreal and unattainable, the presumed media influence on peers of the opposite gender is likely to lead young females to experience body dissatisfaction…” (p. 28).
To further support the notion that media’s influence and the existence of the third-person effect survives in other societies than our own, this study looks at a sample of female college students at an American university and a university in Singapore where the dominant race is Chinese. Therefore it can be concluded that the images of the “ideal” body impact women world-wide and keep them confined to the stranglehold of patriarchal gender roles of female objectification.
Not only did this study further confirm the presence of the third-person effect on the whole, and that the media’s influence on body image perceptions are rampant cross-culturally, but differently to Brandes (2009) the authors found that race did play a role but not as much as the participant’s perception of their own reported self-esteem. The participants who perceived them to be just as thin as or thinner than the model (of the same race) felt no media effects. However, some participants felt effects from the model of the other race (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 28). This could have been due to other self evaluations and social comparisons of the participant to the model. Still, looking at Brandes (2009) and Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) we are left to wonder if the race of the ideal-body-type models impacts young women’s perception of body image. The key point to take from these two studies, however, is that female college students across countries are most susceptible to ideal body images in the media (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 27).
Make Do
David & Johnson’s (1998) study sought to uncover more knowledge about the “cognitive processes underlying body image media effects” since this is not observed as often as the media’s general impact on shaping women’s body image perceptions (1998, p. 39.) Even though this study is dated, it offers relevant information and a unique look at the third-person effect.
The duo “evaluated the perceived impact of the media on three body image outcomes (perceptions of ideal body weight, impact on self-esteem, and eating disorder likelihood)” (p. 39).
Similarly to Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) and Leone & Bissell (2006), David & Johnson (1998) observed college-age women in their sample. In accordance to what Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) discuss, it is the college-age females that are most affected by the media’s influence. A possible explanation for this could be that this is the age upon which these women join the adult world and look to society (via the media) for demonstration as how to fit in to this new experience.
David & Johnson do not incorporate college-age men as they attested that “eating disorders are relatively rare among males” and justifying that those men who do engage in this behavior do so to better themselves in sports rather than the media imposition to be thin (Hesse-Biber, Clayton-Matthews, & Downey, 1987 cited on p. 39). Contrastingly, Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) contend that not only women are affected, men “mak[ing] up more than 1 million anorexics” (Bordo, 1999 cited on p. 61) but agree that men haven’t reached the same level of criticism women have.
As in the previous studies, the authors found significant third-person effect, the interesting result being “the widening of the third-person gap with outcome undesirability…as the social undesirability of the outcome increased, there was a sharp decline in perceived effect on self, but only a modest decline in perceived effect on classmates” (p. 52).
Making a Conclusion
Several scholars have noted that female college-age students are the most vulnerable to media’s messages (Hesse-Biber, 19889 and Pyle et al., 1986 cited in David & Johnson, 1998, p. 39) and those across countries are just as susceptible to ideal body images in the media as in the U.S. (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 27).
Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) discuss the “troubled relationship between media and body image” (p. 61) and though they do not address the third-person effect directly, it can be noted indirectly with the quantitative figures they present of women and men seeking plastic surgery to “better” themselves. One such argument Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) identify is that plastic surgery is a way in which individuals seek to increase their self-esteem (p. 70). However they also present and support the argument that “plastic surgery, in a very literal sense, views the body as an object to be molded…the female body is constantly objectified” (p. 70).
Reading these five studies together presents a view of the third-person effect and body image as a tangled, complex, and unavoidable relationship. Mediated messages are pervasive and yet no matter how many trips are made to the mall where that advertisement banner looms over the mall directory, it has no influence because you know more than “they” give you credit for. Davison (1983) asserts that
We are all experts on those subjects that matter to us, in that we have information not available to other people. This information may not be of a factual or technical nature; it may have to do with our own experiences, likes, and dislikes. Other people, we reason, do not know what we know. Therefore, they are more likely to be influenced by the media (emphasis added, p. 9).
As critical feminists, as scholars, as women of this world, we ought the reflect on what it is we know about our bodies. We have similar genetic makeup, yet everybody is different. Therefore why do the media imply we strive to conform? To change what we’re naturally given into something more “acceptable?” Butler (1990) alleges that “there is very little agreement…on what it is that constitutes, or ought to constitute, the category of women” (p. 1). Well what about the category of the human race? We need this current wave of feminists to become educated, apply for media positions, and stop the female representation of airbrushed fantasies and promote something much more important such as how to survive in this world on our own two feet standing on the ground we were given.
The third-person effect is like our shadow. It’s always there, though not always visible unless one turns against the light to look directly at our shaded self. We’ve seen it before, we know it’s there when light is present, thus no need to check on it. However it must not be ignored for we may not notice potential distortions while we’re listening to music, shopping at the mall, or watching T.V. Though it looms in the darkness it does not mean we cannot find ways to render it. We must stand up and take control – mold our shadows. All we have to do is increase our awareness to the amount of light we’re exposed to.
References
Barak Brandes, S. (2009, January). The Third-Person Effect in Israeli Women's Attitude to TV Commercials and Their Images. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. Retrieved from http://www.ulib.niu.edu:4426/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&hid=107&sid=dd81ba6c-6257-4feb-bd7e-f91e78f026a1%40sessionmgr110
Chia, S. C. (2007). Third-person perceptions about idealized body image and weight-loss behavior. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(4), 677-694. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=31706763&site=ehost-live
Conners, J. L. (2005). Understanding the third-person effect. Center for the Study of Communication and Culture, 24(2).
David, P., & Johnson, M. A. (1998). The role of self in third-person effects about body image. Journal of Communication, 48(4), 37-56. Retrieved from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~mjohnson/pdfs/roleo fself.pdf
Davidson, P. W. (1983). The third-person effect in communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1-15.
Leone, R., & Bissell, K. (2006, January). Gender Differences in Third-Person Perceptions About Body Image and Exposure to Reality Makeover Television Shows. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=27204175&site=ehost-live
Tajima, A., Ong, M., & Chia, S. (2006, January). A Cross-National Examination of Third-Person Perception About Ideal Body Image. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. Retrieved from http://search.ebsco host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=27203798&site=ehost-live
Review Essay of the Third-Person Effect and Body Image
Elle Morgen
COMS 640
Dr. C.
Northern Illinois University
Introduction
Mediated messages are pervasive. Mediated messages depicting patriarchal representations of women are even worse. If you did not own a television, merely driving to the nearest mall you’re sure to encounter a billboard on the side of the road, even if it’s on a bench. Suppose that you do go to the mall, and approaching the mall directory there is a banner advertising one of the specialty stores. In this advertisement there is a group of attractive, fit, 20-somethings reclining against a Jeep parked on a beach. One couple is sitting on the hood kissing, a few are sitting in the car listening to music and laughing, while two others are running along the shoreline in the distance. Naturally, you are aware that advertisers try to promote the idea that if you buy their product it could be you out there, being active and having fun. But you know better.
According to Davison’s (1983) third-person effect theory, he argues that people tend to believe that mass mediated messages (persuasive or non-persuasive) have a greater effect or influence on others than on themselves. Davidson suggests there are two elements that comprise this effect: the perceptual and the behavioral (Davison, 1983, p. 9; Huh, Delorme, & Reid, 2004, cited in Leone & Bissell, p. 9). The perceptual implies that a mediated message has greater effect on others – the third person – than on the self or “you.” The behavioral implies that others could be persuaded to act a certain way “based on perceived effects” (Huh et al, 2004, p. 569; Leone & Bissell, p. 9).
In third-person effect studies, previous research has focused on negative messages like violence and the presence of pornography on the internet, to censorship of mass media (Davidson, 1983; Perloff, 1993; Conners, 2005). Not much attention has been directed towards positive messages. This is because an underlying assumption of the third-person effect is that the message presented by the media is negative in nature, thus, naturally, an individual would not desire to “own up to it,” in a sense (Perloff, 1993). If the message were positive, in which the individual could respond saying something akin to, “oh yes, that’s definitely me,” this would be an account of the first-person, just as in narratives the first-person perspective uses the voice of “I” and “me.” So while there cannot be empirical research of positive messages in regards to the third-person effect, or third-person perception, there is however, some research that looks at neutral topics, like body image. That is, neutral in the sense that it is not violent in nature nor is it exactly “positive” (e.g. “our bodies are great!”). But body image is, however, a very impassioned subject.
The five articles I examine focus on the connection between the third-person effect and body image as presented by the media. The tone of the relationship between the third-person effect and perceived body image is negative in nature considering that the third-person is present in these studies, conversely if it were positive in tone, presence of the first-person would be recorded. Yet these seemingly unattainable “ideal body” representations are continually occurring. It is important to note that all articles deal with a female audience, as females are generally more affected than males (David & Johnson, 1998, p. 39). Some of the literature does, however, relate what the women believe men perceive about the mediated messages.
Overall, I identified emergent themes in the literature that indicated the problem is two-pronged. On one tine there is the perceptual, where body image is constructed by these mass-mediated images. On the second tine exists the actual, in which the real body image attempts to parallel itself with the perceptual. It’s almost like a vicious circle of cause and effect. An individual consumes these ideal body images and attempts to conform (via fad diets, gym memberships, etc.) but ultimately fails. Reality retains all the water against the airbrushed dream. This essay reviews previous literature about the third-person effect in regards to body image to further identify why these “ideals” permeate our society, if they happen in other countries/cultures, and how these messages reinforce dominant patriarchal gender roles.
The Make-Over
The underlying premise of makeover shows is to take an “ugly duckling” or an “average girl” and turn her into a “swan” or “beauty queen” utilizing plastic surgery, cosmetics, and new wardrobe (Leone & Bissell, 2006, p. 24). Examples of these include: “The Swan,” “What Not to Wear,” and “Ambush Makeover.”
In, “Are You For Real?: Gender Differences in Third-Person Perceptions about Body Image and Exposure to Reality Makeover Television Shows,” ( Leone & Bissell, 2006) the authors examine third-person perception of college-aged people as it relates to body image distortion in women and men and five target “other” groups including those older and younger than the sample. Their primary goal was to examine the third-person perception and its relation to body image distortion among college students. Their second goal was to seek further into the students’ beliefs about plastic surgery and a solution for “fixing” their body image (p. 3). Participants were shown an image of a thin swimsuit model or a muscular swimsuit model depending on the participant’s sex, and were asked “to project how repeated exposure to images like the one viewed would affect themselves and others” (p. 11). They also controlled and recorded the amount of exposure to such makeover shows as “Extreme Makeover” and “The Swan.” The participants predicted that others would be more likely to be affected by exposure to this ideal body type portrayal than him or her individually (p. 16).
Leone & Bissell (2006) reported that eighty percent of women in America are dissatisfied with their appearance. Additionally, not only women are experiencing this, for it is also conveyed that nearly “three million males in the United States use anabolic steroids to increase their muscle mass” (p. 3). The authors claim that the “exposure to thinness depicting and promoting (TDP) media is related to greater body dissatisfaction, lower body self-esteem, and self objectification in school-aged males and females” (p.3). Kipnis (1999) and Butler (1990) both devote several pages in their books proffering that gender is governed by social scripts (p. 80; preface, p. xxxi). Sloop (2004) maintains that those who deviate from the scripts are punished or disciplined. It seems it holds true even here. When the individual cannot attain the ideal body type – falling away from the accepted script – the individual is punished, however it is more self-inflicted through the destructive behavior of depression and food disorders.
The authors argue that even toymakers promote these ideal bodies. Leone & Bissell (2006) quote another scholar who says, “GI Joe’s increasing muscularity over the decades is obviously intentional on the part of the manufacturer to project more masculinity and more power…boys pick up on that and make the connection: If I want to be strong and masculine, I have to be muscular” (Olivardia, 2003, cited in Leone & Bissell, 2006, p. 5). And let’s not ignore the popular girl’s toy, the Barbie Doll. Leone & Bissell (2006) describe that even from a young age people are being bombarded with this notion that only one body type is acceptable.
Throughout the study, the authors note that ideal body types represented in the media are different for men and women, but the repeated exposure or presentation of them is the same (p. 5). This is important to recognize as the amount of exposure plays a vital role in our society’s tight-grasped perception of one of the appropriate definitions of gender.
Leone & Bissell (2006) found a significant third-person effect in all target groups (p. 22). Their findings also suggest that while their participants did believe the media had an impact on others’ beliefs about ideal body images, the degree of the effect “may be predicted on age and perceived exposure to the harmful media” (p. 23). In regards to plastic surgery as a solution to “fix” their bodies, participants felt they would never invest in it, but believe that older people (women) would. Moreover, the men who were highly exposed to the mediated messages deemed it acceptable that women seek plastic surgery to make their bodies better (p. 23). Leone & Bissell state that The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reports “the number of girls 18 and younger receiving breast implants tripled from 3,872 to 11,326 between 2002 and 2003” (p7). The team divulged that their “findings suggest that respondents in our sample believe the media do in fact have an effect on all others’ beliefs about ideal body image, but the degree of effect may be predicated on age and perceived exposure to the harmful media” (p. 23).
This study is the first among the five to represent a sort of mismatch between the media’s ideal self and reality’s actual self (Leone & Bissell, 2006, p. 4). The best way to fix it – get a make-over. Right?
The Make-Up
Flawless foundation, dark voluminous lashes, age-defying serum, hair extensions, and a push-up bra from Victoria’s Secret. Purchasing these things will not only make a woman feel beautiful and sexy, but be beautiful and sexy. Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) do not directly examine the third-person effect, but their study has merit. They provide body image research within mainstream media, recency of study, and contribute insights of patriarchal and hegemonic gender roles within our popular culture. Additionally, though no third-person was examined or recorded, it could be argued that it may have been present.
Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007), grounded in cultural and feminist studies, explore make-over shows as Leone & Bissell (2006) did, but focus primarily on “A Makeover Story,” “What Not to Wear,” and “Extreme Makeover,” executing a textual analysis to determine “the ideological impact of patriarchy, particularly as it relates to female body image” (p. 57). Their starting point is based on this “ideology of beauty,” comprised of the items previously listed and how companies make women feel that they are incomplete without these beauty enhancers (Schwichtenberg, 1989, p. 293, cited on p. 57).
Butler (1990) argues “gender [is] a binary relation in which the masculine is differentiated from a feminine term, and this differentiation is accomplished through the practices of heterosexual desire” (Butler, 1990, p. 23). Thus wearing makeup can be viewed as being feminine – performing a women’s proper gender. But what consequences does this have? Sure, wearing make-up can make a women feel pretty, but for what? Generally, for the pleasure of gaining attention of men. This promotes a heteronormative ideal not to mention the patriarchal objectification of women.
Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) utilize quantitative researches methods, in difference to the other scholars mentioned who tend to engage in interviews. They undergo ten hours total of program viewing, identifying emergent themes and patterns imploring Sonja Foss’s (1996) method of analyzing “hegemonic structures in texts” for guidance (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 64).
The team acknowledges men in their study as Leone & Bissell (2006) had, but in a less severe way suggesting that men have not yet reached the same level of risk as women currently do (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 61). Even so, the authors note that there are makeover programs for men such as “Queer Eye for the Straight Guy,” in which groom heterosexual males into attractive partners for their opposite sex counterparts. A program such as this reinforces heteronormative views. Indeed, it brings to mind the idea that a “manly man” cannot look after himself – groom himself, take pride in appearance – for these are feminine characteristics that are “taboo within hegemonic masculinity” (p. 61). The increasing number of men who engage in this behavior has become so problematic that our society/media has deemed it necessary to label these men “metrosexuals” in order to distinguish them from women and homosexual men.
The researchers also take a glance at plastic surgery within their research. Where Leone & Bissell’s (2006) male participants deemed it acceptable for women to seek this solution out as a fix for physical features, it seems men do this as well comprising 15 percent of plastic surgery patients. A small number perhaps, but more significant than I imagined it would have been. Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) identified that the “typical plastic surgery patient is Caucasian (84%), is female (85%), is usually aged 30 to 50 years old (45%), and is a repeat patient, meaning they have already undergone at least one procedure prior to their next surgery (37%)” (American Association of Plastic Surgeons, 2004, cited on p. 70).
“The individual body in American society is pretty much the sole locale for scenarious of transformation: you can aerobicize it, liposuction it, contract it through diet or expand it with collagen injections” Kipnis (1999) argues (p. 103). The authors nod their heads to this as one of the emergent themes uncovered in the shows was that plastic surgery is a “pain-free cure-all” for women’s imperfections (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 69). The authors argue that this message suggests that there is something “abnormal” about the individual woman that can/needs to be changed to “normal” (p. 69). Having been a plastic surgery patient myself I can attest to the inner need of “fixing” an apparent abnormality to a more “normal” and “acceptable” physical feature. The definition of normal is defined by culture, thus media included, setting the bar which seems to be constantly rising. If it were Limbo, there would be no obstacle, but this is not a party game. This is our lives and we only live it once. If we fail, there is no make-up.
On the Make
Similar to Leone & Bissell, Brandes (2009) investigates the third-person effect and women’s attitude to these mediated images, however Brandes (2009) does so cross-culturally, observing this particular intersection of race and gender exposed to media effects. The author focused the study on Israeli women unlike Leone & Bissell’s (2006) U.S. college students and Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert’s (2007) textual analysis. Many American scholars hold a magnifying glass over issues within the United States as it is this patriarchal wall that needs to be torn down, however looking abroad can provide further support by peeking into the stronger patriarchal societies that hold strong today.
Brandes (2009) argues that overall, “the connection between female body images in the media…has been examined in the cross-cultural and ethnic context, as the model of beauty most common in the media throughout the world is white” (p. 6). However the author found evidence that suggests not all women conform to the “ideal white models” due to several factors such as women’s self esteem, being on a diet, and relatability of the model (David & Johnson, 1998; David et al., 2002; as cited in Brandes, 2009, p. 7). It appears minority women do not relate to white models, thus view themselves as unaffected by this influence. However white girls tend to believe others’ do accept these images upon which, as a result, white girls are judged (Milkie, 1999; Brandes, p. 7). Considering this, Brandes (2009) conducted in-depth interviews with 44 Israeli women from a variety of social and economic backgrounds as to provide a diverse sample and utilizes grounded theory methodology to analyze the interviews.
Akin to what Leone & Bissell (2006) found, these interviews help a reoccurring theme: the participants claimed to function under a “critical eye” that they felt “others” may not thus being more susceptible to influence of media’s images. In regards to advertising in commercials, the participants who did confess to purchasing a product in wake of the mediated message justified it by some other external means (Brandes, 2009, p. 11). A vast amount of the participant’s responses, however, were in regards to their children and others’ children being influenced. Brandes (2009) took on a difficult task focusing cross-culturally as the values and norms can vary. To combat this, Brandes (2009) describes key features within women’s life in Israel, and reports “it is hard to ignore the sense that the women’s remarks reflected their viewing of the [mediated message] through the prism of patriarchal motherhood, which would indicate the centrality of their role as mother in their gender identity” (p. 16). Last key point to observe is the participants’ belief of how men view these messages/images. The women believed that men attain a “superficial fascination with physical appearance” and that they are very much influenced by mediated messages and images: “they see something on TV and want their wives to look like that,” says one participant (p. 17). This is interesting as Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) quoted the American Association of Plastic Surgeons (2004) who disclosed that 15 percent of plastic surgery patients are men (Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert, 2007, p. 61).
Kipnis’ (1999) chapter, “Life in the Fat Lane,” points out within the first paragraph that our society’s obsession for fat’s absence makes certain of its “omnipresence” (p. 93.). The participants within Brandes’ (2009) study seem to suggest that while it appears that individuals are not only being judged and critiqued by their society, but also by their loved ones.
Make it or Break it
As Brandes (2009) discovered, Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) also found that the women in their experiment believed men to be just as, and in some cases more, susceptible to media’s influence than their female peers (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 27) and “because ideal body images are usually unreal and unattainable, the presumed media influence on peers of the opposite gender is likely to lead young females to experience body dissatisfaction…” (p. 28).
To further support the notion that media’s influence and the existence of the third-person effect survives in other societies than our own, this study looks at a sample of female college students at an American university and a university in Singapore where the dominant race is Chinese. Therefore it can be concluded that the images of the “ideal” body impact women world-wide and keep them confined to the stranglehold of patriarchal gender roles of female objectification.
Not only did this study further confirm the presence of the third-person effect on the whole, and that the media’s influence on body image perceptions are rampant cross-culturally, but differently to Brandes (2009) the authors found that race did play a role but not as much as the participant’s perception of their own reported self-esteem. The participants who perceived them to be just as thin as or thinner than the model (of the same race) felt no media effects. However, some participants felt effects from the model of the other race (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 28). This could have been due to other self evaluations and social comparisons of the participant to the model. Still, looking at Brandes (2009) and Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) we are left to wonder if the race of the ideal-body-type models impacts young women’s perception of body image. The key point to take from these two studies, however, is that female college students across countries are most susceptible to ideal body images in the media (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 27).
Make Do
David & Johnson’s (1998) study sought to uncover more knowledge about the “cognitive processes underlying body image media effects” since this is not observed as often as the media’s general impact on shaping women’s body image perceptions (1998, p. 39.) Even though this study is dated, it offers relevant information and a unique look at the third-person effect.
The duo “evaluated the perceived impact of the media on three body image outcomes (perceptions of ideal body weight, impact on self-esteem, and eating disorder likelihood)” (p. 39).
Similarly to Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) and Leone & Bissell (2006), David & Johnson (1998) observed college-age women in their sample. In accordance to what Tajima, Ong, & Chia (2006) discuss, it is the college-age females that are most affected by the media’s influence. A possible explanation for this could be that this is the age upon which these women join the adult world and look to society (via the media) for demonstration as how to fit in to this new experience.
David & Johnson do not incorporate college-age men as they attested that “eating disorders are relatively rare among males” and justifying that those men who do engage in this behavior do so to better themselves in sports rather than the media imposition to be thin (Hesse-Biber, Clayton-Matthews, & Downey, 1987 cited on p. 39). Contrastingly, Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) contend that not only women are affected, men “mak[ing] up more than 1 million anorexics” (Bordo, 1999 cited on p. 61) but agree that men haven’t reached the same level of criticism women have.
As in the previous studies, the authors found significant third-person effect, the interesting result being “the widening of the third-person gap with outcome undesirability…as the social undesirability of the outcome increased, there was a sharp decline in perceived effect on self, but only a modest decline in perceived effect on classmates” (p. 52).
Making a Conclusion
Several scholars have noted that female college-age students are the most vulnerable to media’s messages (Hesse-Biber, 19889 and Pyle et al., 1986 cited in David & Johnson, 1998, p. 39) and those across countries are just as susceptible to ideal body images in the media as in the U.S. (Tajima et al., 2006, p. 27).
Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) discuss the “troubled relationship between media and body image” (p. 61) and though they do not address the third-person effect directly, it can be noted indirectly with the quantitative figures they present of women and men seeking plastic surgery to “better” themselves. One such argument Gallagher & Pecot-Hebert (2007) identify is that plastic surgery is a way in which individuals seek to increase their self-esteem (p. 70). However they also present and support the argument that “plastic surgery, in a very literal sense, views the body as an object to be molded…the female body is constantly objectified” (p. 70).
Reading these five studies together presents a view of the third-person effect and body image as a tangled, complex, and unavoidable relationship. Mediated messages are pervasive and yet no matter how many trips are made to the mall where that advertisement banner looms over the mall directory, it has no influence because you know more than “they” give you credit for. Davison (1983) asserts that
We are all experts on those subjects that matter to us, in that we have information not available to other people. This information may not be of a factual or technical nature; it may have to do with our own experiences, likes, and dislikes. Other people, we reason, do not know what we know. Therefore, they are more likely to be influenced by the media (emphasis added, p. 9).
As critical feminists, as scholars, as women of this world, we ought the reflect on what it is we know about our bodies. We have similar genetic makeup, yet everybody is different. Therefore why do the media imply we strive to conform? To change what we’re naturally given into something more “acceptable?” Butler (1990) alleges that “there is very little agreement…on what it is that constitutes, or ought to constitute, the category of women” (p. 1). Well what about the category of the human race? We need this current wave of feminists to become educated, apply for media positions, and stop the female representation of airbrushed fantasies and promote something much more important such as how to survive in this world on our own two feet standing on the ground we were given.
The third-person effect is like our shadow. It’s always there, though not always visible unless one turns against the light to look directly at our shaded self. We’ve seen it before, we know it’s there when light is present, thus no need to check on it. However it must not be ignored for we may not notice potential distortions while we’re listening to music, shopping at the mall, or watching T.V. Though it looms in the darkness it does not mean we cannot find ways to render it. We must stand up and take control – mold our shadows. All we have to do is increase our awareness to the amount of light we’re exposed to.
References
Barak Brandes, S. (2009, January). The Third-Person Effect in Israeli Women's Attitude to TV Commercials and Their Images. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. Retrieved from http://www.ulib.niu.edu:4426/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&hid=107&sid=dd81ba6c-6257-4feb-bd7e-f91e78f026a1%40sessionmgr110
Chia, S. C. (2007). Third-person perceptions about idealized body image and weight-loss behavior. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(4), 677-694. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=31706763&site=ehost-live
Conners, J. L. (2005). Understanding the third-person effect. Center for the Study of Communication and Culture, 24(2).
David, P., & Johnson, M. A. (1998). The role of self in third-person effects about body image. Journal of Communication, 48(4), 37-56. Retrieved from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~mjohnson/pdfs/roleo fself.pdf
Davidson, P. W. (1983). The third-person effect in communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1-15.
Leone, R., & Bissell, K. (2006, January). Gender Differences in Third-Person Perceptions About Body Image and Exposure to Reality Makeover Television Shows. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=27204175&site=ehost-live
Tajima, A., Ong, M., & Chia, S. (2006, January). A Cross-National Examination of Third-Person Perception About Ideal Body Image. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. Retrieved from http://search.ebsco host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=27203798&site=ehost-live
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